Post Reading

Post Reading

1. Reading the disappearing spoon has changed the way I see scientists because it has allowed me to see what each has gone through and what they have overcome in their lifetime to be where they were at. But not all lead to riches, fame, and luxury. Instead, some ended up with worldwide accomplishments but only had nothing given back. Although, the most intriguing part I see about very famous scientists is how they ended up with lots of tragedies and still pursued their work in chemistry no matter what, like Dimitri Mendeleev. Furthermore, scientists' discoveries always ended up in death, jealousy, revenge, or in Tragedy, much like the man who invented the Mustard Gas even after his Wife shot herself to death in order for him to attend her funeral than his meeting of inventing the world's deadliest Poison Gas used in Chemical Warfare. 

2. What surprised me about Sam Kean's connections to life and the periodic table is how we have used its elements to kill in very horrific ways and how we used the elements of greed and deception. But one thing I found to be new was the discovery of an atomic bomb, known as the Cobalt Bomb, that has the capacity to end human life on earth and not just by the blast itself but with the gamma radiation that would envelop a very large area and lasts a long time. 

3. My favorite element is between Titanium and Silicon. Titanium which is the only element that can be placed to replaced bones in parts of the body. Titanium is also a very strong metal me and my Dad have always admired for its durability. Although, as much as I love titanium, Silicon beats it because it has a lot of interesting properties that peak my interest in research and other experimentation I want to do in the future, and hopefully I won't kill myself with the element I love like Marie Curie. Jokes aside, I would like to invent a type of exoskeleton with Silicon or try tp make a Life form out of Silicon if possible. Or even make myself a robot out of Silicon. 

Chapter 19

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 19

Summary

     In the last chapter, it introduces the rarest element known on Earth, astatine. The next rarest element in francium, which can be explained through a long set of decayed elements and probabilities. After scientists were playing with heavy elements and stability, they came up with the idea of the “island of stability.” However, this theory basically rests on francium and now to stabilize the nuclei of elements. Based on this theory, scientists have been able to fill in the last rows of the periodic table with hypothesized elements all dealing with latin and other names that scientist considered normal to them.

     Then the question to many scientists was the limits of the periodic table. The chapter then moves into how the periodic table is set up including future changes that might happen with the discovery of other matter and quantum dots. Over the years there have been hundreds of ways of organizing the periodic table but all go back to one, the original used by Bohr. Lastly, the author mentioned how we might one day make a new, re-designed, and impressive periodic table in the future that would even surprise Aliens. 

Reflection

    One interesting thing about this chapter is about Francium chemical Property of storing a lot of electrons and still be stable. But what is more impressive is the fact on how little there is on Francium on earth and if there was a small physical portion of it, it would kill the scientists near it. But for now, we stick with other elements that we prefer to kill each other with like uranium. 

Guideline Questions

1. Because francium is the second most rarest element on earth.

2. Strong nuclear force and the electrostatic force. Nuclear force is responsible for radiation. 

3. The reason that somehow heavy isotopes will help extend the periodic table.

4. The reason why we could never go beyond 137 on the periodic table is because with 137 protons, it would be going faster than the speed of light, which can obviously never happen.

5. If there was one I had to choose from many, it's the table meant for physicists. It is placed in a 3D-ish angle that allows the person to see where they lay above and below each other with a sense that columns and periods are still there. In addition, it contains the energy levels of the elements and quantum structure.
At the moment I would like to keep the periodic as it is because its easier to understand and I am barely learning all of the order in which they go. But I might have some second thoughts as I get into college. 

Chapter 18

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 18

Summary

     In this Chapter, the NIST and BIPM, two bureaus that focus on being as precise with all measurements as possible. One of the most important of all measurement tools, the kilogram. The International Prototype kilogram was a cylinder that weighed exactly one kilogram and scientists went to absolutely ridiculous measures to keep it this way. However, when it started to shrink mysteriously, they gave up this method. 
     The scientists started to use an atomic clock in order to calculate the absolute most precise measurements of time that they possibly can. Because alpha is something measurable, scientists, of course, found the exact measurement. Then came the data from Oklo, a site in Africa where the only known fission reactor exists. Based on research done, some scientists guess that alpha is slowly getting bigger and in return, there was a variation in data. This inconstant, if true, means that the big bang theory would be impossible. Then Australian ideas are introduced with quasars and this somehow led to the theory of a fundamental constant changing. 

Reflection

     What is interesting about this is that it talked about an atomic clock which can tell precise time. Such a device could be useful to determine the actual time for a reaction to occur without the use of rounding numbers. Then there is the use of alphas, constants, and pi which is confused me at first but understood it as I read more about it. 

Guideline Questions

1. To minimize the surface area exposed to dirty air.

2. It's an extremely accurate type of clock that is regulated by the vibrations of an atomic or molecular system such as cesium or ammonia. And because cesium has one electron in the outer shell.

3.It is susceptible to change.

4. It is possible for alpha to change because unlike Pi, alpha can have values multiplied by different powers. 

5. I think that it is important to have an exact second because it would allow chemists to tell the Exact time of a chemical reaction and help physicists with formulas like how old the universe is.  

6. It's a big deal because it can lead to miscalculations and lead to other catastrophes in science. 

7. What it means for something to be a paradox is knowing a situation or statement to be true even though it seems absurd. 

Chapter 17

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 17

Summary

      In this Chapter, Donald Glaser, who came to the idea of using bubbles from beer to find to conjure up exotic and fragile species of particles. Watching his beer glass, Glaser was able to take part in the creation of the Cloud chamber. 
     The chapter also moves onto smaller stories of Roman’s love of calcium. Then introducing Rutherford as basically that of an ogre but based on his radioactive experiments he became famous.Rutherford and Soddy were able to prove that elements could mutate into other elements. He then used this knowledge and discovered helium particles being produced from this decay as bubbles. This theory went on to be used as a device to help find the age of the earth by measuring the amount if helium trapped in rocks.

Reflection

     In the chapter, learning that bubbles in a glass of beer seen as a legend is pretty comical. Although it did allow Donald Glaser to discover particular particles and win a Nobel Prize at 33 years of age. But what is amusing is how a rifle shooting through water was the antithesis of Rutherford's experiment which allowed him to find out that the foil was "empty."

Guideline Questions

1. Donald Glaser revamped version of the cloud chamber which won his Nobel Prize. 

2. Rutherford went on with pure radioactivity which released new elements.

3. One way scientists figured out how old is the Universe is by the expansion of the Universe and with that they just went backward to see how far it began. The key factors in determining the Expansion of the Universe was the portion of regular and dark matter, dark energy, leftover radiation from the big bang, and the density of the universe.
http://www.space.com/24054-how-old-is-the-universe.html

4. It is considered that way because if you shoot a rifle through water, one would expect it to go through it but have less impact towards. Although that wasn't the case and the bullet stopped unlike his experiment with the foil. 

Chapter 16

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 16

Summary

     In this Chapter, it mentions the properties of Tin that causes an effect of whitish rust to form in cold temperatures. That effect caused the deaths of Scott and his crew on their journey to the south pole but were disappointed to find out that another team beat them to it a month earlier.  Although the Tin canisters they had made the effect of the whitish rust form and kill their supplies then themselves. The effect was caused by a Beta form changing into Alpha form in cold temperatures. 

     Then there is the discovery of Lasers which also lead to Masers. Lasers emitted a light that was also known as waves or Photons that carried electrons to different energy levels. Then there are Masers that needed a neodymium crystal to make a powerful light that released heat in the process. 

Reflection

     In the chapter I found the discovery of lasers to be impressive but the most interesting part is what lead to Masers which are more powerful than Lasers. Masers made a powerful light that released Heat and required a crystal for the process. That description of Masers sounds very similar to what I know of Light Sabers in the Star wars but I'm pretty sure Goerge Lucas's team got the idea of Light Sabers from the discovery of Masers in the 1900s. 

Guideline Questions

1. It is significant that they form those structures because when Tin gets cold it makes the Beta turn to Alpha, a powdery form. And it makes the other crystal structure with a different density and different properties.

2. It was hard because it required the right reaction, and well-timed bursts of ultraviolet light, all set to bake at a frigid −445°F. But it was a durable crystal and it is the single hardest element humans have forced into a compound.

3. Masers are same as Lasers but produce non-visible light which needs the use crystals of yttrium spiked with neodymium to produce this light that releases heat in the process. Then there are Lasers that shoot light known as waves or photons but work by moving electrons from one energy level to the next. 

4.  Besides making strong lasers, neodymium can help make the world's strongest LASERS.

5.  The condensate is used so that the atoms can somehow not be individual atoms but merge and combine in Cold Temperatures.  

Chapter 15

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 15

Summary

     In this Chapter, it discusses the finding of pathological Scientist such as William Crooke who invented the radiometer. The background of Crooke is that he was born to a tailor who was the first of sixteen children. He later had 10 children of his own and still managed to join the Royal Society even though he wasn't brought up from a genius family line. 

     In addition, there is the study of manganese with the Megalodon which stuns researchers and Megalodon Romantics to this day. The element Manganese is used to determine how long fossil/bone has existed. Then there is the possibility of Cold Fusion that engages many people to actually discover the subject that has made fools of one particular duo, Pons and Fleischman. 

Reflection

     One interesting thing I learned from the chapter is the possibility of Cold Fusion and how it would work to stop the world's worry of energy consumption. I would want to figure out a way to solve the mysterious of Cold Fusion in College but as the chapter mentioned not all discoveries are that simple and they can lead to embarrassing moments marked in history if you are not careful enough. The invention of Crooke was one device that I see to be something odd and something I would have to experience to believe it. But one person I found to go above and beyond is William Rontgen who was able to discover the X-ray and believed himself to be Mad. 

Guideline Questions

1. What is Unique about William Crookes is that he was born to a tailor in London, not a professor. Then he made it into the royal society even though he had ten kids of his own. The discovery he made was a scientific device to monitor the susurrus of wandering spirits in the candlelit rooms, the radiometer. 

2. The Megalodon is similar to Bigfoot because people believe they exist but the difference is that there is scientific prove the Megalodon once existed a long time ago and it all happened with the help of Manganese. 

3. What it means to be a Pathological Scientist is that the person has devoted themselves to find a spiritual, paranormal, or unknown subject with their Knowledge in Science. 

4. Cold Fusion is clean, cheap energy. Although it is similar to perpetual motion machines by its ability to work with Palladium to store lots of energy, not to have infinite energy. 

5. William Rontgen discovered the X-Ray by his fascination of finding invisible rays. But unlike Pons and Fleischman, who right away wanted to get fame and not realize trail and error, he instead did not leap to the convenient conclusion that he’d discovered something radically new, and assumed he’d made a mistake somewhere. 

Chapter 14

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 14

Summary

     In this Chapter, I have learned that the nature of literature can blend in well with the art of science, letting more people know about science with curiosity and enthusiasm. One man who was able to do this was Goethe and he was also known for being second to Shakespeare. Furthermore, Goethe was also known for being a successful german with his work.  

     The use of money and artistic design is blended into a pen which was mentioned to be "the best if not the world's most wanted pen." This pen contained many expensive elements for the artistic design and use, like the gold or rhenium used for the tip to make it last for extended use. But as one thing fades out, a newer one takes it place. Mark twain is that person who tried to make a more competitive product, the typewriter. 

Reflection

     The thing I find interesting about this chapter is that Goethe was second to Shakespeare and is seen differently now just like Shakespeare. But I think Goethe would come in first because he discusses both Literature and science at the same time; giving people a better understanding of science. One thing I found odd about this chapter is one's desire for a newer expensive product but I would have to agree for the Parker 51, if it weren't that expensive. I wouldn't mind having one but due to the elements used and well crafted design, it would be worth considering. 

Guideline Questions

1. Goethe was a writer and a scientist. He was a great scientist due to his knowledge and education, and his teamwork with other young minds. But for some, he is now a good source for strict literature rather than science. 

2. It was the precursor to the periodic table by figuring out the columns. Also, the elements are a related triad because due to their weight they can be set up in the periodic table in rolls that have similar chemical properties. 

3. He meant that Mark twain showed up in the right time to bring a better or impressive product, thus one product better than the Parker 51. 

4. What Robert Lowell meant is that he needed to rid of his mania or depression that was all in his head. 

5. The use lithium has is that it is a scarily reactive metal and could stop the next episode when we take antibiotics at the height of an infection to knock the microbes out. 
6. My understanding is that the elements are arranged in,a half portion that lets us see the added up number which it will equal to the other half. And through using this method, one learn or as a hobby, to know all the elements. .Thus ending in Tom Lehrer’s song in knowing all the element names in eighty-six seconds. 

Chapter 13

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 13

Summary

     What I have learned from this chapter is that there are elements that can deceive people into thinking it is another element such as the two popular ones, Gold and Bronze. One historical event involving the deception of the other elements is the famous and dangerous gold rush. Then another event was Hannan's Find which the element Tellurium made fools of everyone and caused lots of precious gold to be thrown away then dug up again. 

    Another thing about this Chapter is that it mentions the impact that Aluminum had in the world when it was believed to be a more costly elements than Gold. But no in days it is an affordable product we buy in stores. Once more, the discovery was made by a 23-year-old undergraduate which is pretty impressive seeing it only took the encouragement from a professor.  

Reflection

     What I find interesting about this chapter is the fact on how looks can be deceiving to some. Gold which is a popular metal costing many to go into the wilderness and pay a price, and not of money. It is also interesting to see how valuable an element costs due to how hard it is to find. But the thing I found fascinating is how the element europium is used in our money, paper money. Which I guess makes the element very expensive due to its property that allows it to stop counterfeiting. 

Guideline Questions

1. Zinc, Tin ores, and copper. 

2. The word "Transmute" means to change in form or substance. 

3. The chemical formula for fool's gold is iron pyrite (iron disulfide). 

4. Europium helps stop counterfeiting by its chemical property to have its electrons shifting through levels creating a visible light. Thus allowing people to identify the hidden symbols created by the Europium. 

5. It is anachronistic because they did it to show off and just a small portion of the element would have paid the wages for the laborers who erected it. 

6. What would happen to the price is that it would be cheaper and similar to the Aluminum story, Gold and Platinum would be sold to countless of people, and have major buyers and companies. 

Chapter 12

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 12

Summary

    In this Chapter, it mentions the tragedies of what chemists had to go through, and how women had a tough life pursuing a career in science. One in which is Marie Curie who discovered two new elements by skimming around nuclear waste of Uranium, just to find the nuclear waste more Radioactive. Then as she named one element Polonium, there began to many statements about her naming the element even though it was supposed to be named after her Home. Sadly, her life ended in leukemia, as did her daughter, and had her husband die.

     Meitner, on the other hand, was another victim to being the second women to pursue science where Marie Curie left off. As Marie had her trouble in finding a suitable place due to her being a woman, Meitner had the same trouble and just like Marie she had a man help her in her scientific progress. Although Meitner and Hahn never had a romantic relationship, they had a professional one. But, even the hardships they had been through together, Hahn disgracefully didn't share a Noble Prize with her.

Reflection

     This Chapter was really interesting because it discusses the political matters in Chemistry even we wished it was discovering something and being done with it.But unfortunately, it wasn't that simple, as mentioned in this Chapter. It was shocking to find out that just naming an element after your Home would cause different perspectives to mock the name and element one works on, like Polonium. This political view on naming elements has left me wondering that if someone was ever to discover a new element, it would be up to some other higher power to decide than yourself because politics aren't easy to please and you only get one shot. The good thing about letting another group of wise scientists chose a name is that they would remember past chemists or scientists who are forgotten but remembered in the place of an element name, such as Meitner.

Guideline Questions

1. Pierre Curie died by a street carriage running him over and killing him. Joliot-
Curie died of leukemia in 1956 which was caused by a capsule of polonium exploding in her laboratory, and she inhaled Marie’s beloved element. Then her mother died twenty-two years before with leukemia. 

2. Marie Curie discovered Polonium and Radium. Element Curium is named after Marie Curie. Polonium, Radium, and curium are Radioactive. 

3. Hevesy hid the two Nobel Prizes by dissolving them in nitric and hydrochloric acids which fascinated Alchemists because it can dissolve "Royal Metal," and put them in a beaker. 

4.The collaboration between Hahn and Meitner seemed Romantic but it was not since they shared a relationship between chemistry matters and Physics in other times. Hahn discovered many things with Meitner, defied his bosses, and worked with her in a
carpentry shop throughout all their years. They even sent letters when they were separated in the World War. Although, towards the end, when Hahn was getting a Nobel Prize he did not speak up for Meitner share of the prize, even through all they have been through. As a result, she died with no Nobel Prize just showing how she was a victim of “disciplinary bias, political obtuseness, ignorance, and haste.” 

Chapter 11

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 11

Summary

     In this Chapter, it talked about the elements that deceive people. Sure, some might have these wonderful properties that make our sensors catch something sweet as Beryllium but goods have their downs. And Beryllium had its disease that would scar the lungs. Then there was Iodine which played a big factor to Gandhi's Salt Campaign. It was believed to prevent deformations in childbirth but had other consequences when their trade of Iodine became costly and when the body lacked Iodine it causes an ugly swelling of the thyroid gland in the neck that is important for hormone growth in the body. 

     Then there was the element that is only able to replace bone, Titanium. Titanium is still strange to figure out, especially why the immune system rejects it but it leaves the replacement part more "reinforced" considering its elemental properties. The only bad part in having it in some surgeries is that the titanium would blend or attach very well with its surroundings which would make a future surgery more difficult to replace due to the Collagen. 

Reflection

     This Chapter was a mind opener because Titanium is the element that was used to replace my dad's right leg tibia bone. And it is good to know the elemental properties are not harmful to the body in any way. But the only downside is that Titanium is very expensive, not your typical iron or steel you find anywhere. Thus it required my entire family and by Family I mean, grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins to pitch in to help my dad with the surgery. 

Guideline Questions

1. Nitrogen is important to many living things because is takes up 80 percent of the air we breathe and atmospheric nitrogen absorbs heat.
2. Nitrogen is a deceiver because nitrogen prevents the neurons and heart cells from absorbing new oxygen; it pickpocketed the little oxygen cells store up for hard times. Then there is Titanium which is good at replacing bone but the downside is that the Titanium attaches very easily and is hard to take out when inserted due to the collagen. Beryllium on the other hand makes it deceiving because it is sweet like sugar but can cause Beryllium disease. Then Sodium and Potassium can taste differently but cause an explosion when mixed together. Lastly, there is Iodine which deceives people by its birth defects. 

3. Potassium and Sodium are both members of the group called the Alkali Metals. They are not kept in stockrooms in Schools because any mixing can cause an explosion.

Chapter 10

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 10

Summary

     In this Chapter, it mentions the importance of elements that are used in the medical Industries and how they work but could also lead to strange side effects. Like when Prontosil was sold to cure plagues across apartments or cities. But soon did Prontosil kill some people due to IGF not Knowing or fully understanding the drug. Then later did Prontosil have common characteristics of sulfonamides which ended up costing IGF their product Prontosil. 

     Another element that was surprisingly used by a man trying to cure cancer is Gold. It was believed to burn off radioactively Tumors in the body. But the only experiment took place using his wife's cooking pans on a hot dog. Lastly, there was the Blue man which was a man who took too much silver to cure his disease but didn't work. The chapter also mentions how people saw this as a cure for their illness and for some another side effect. But it is still uncertain on Silver is used and how it can actually cure some and not all. 

Reflection

    The Chapter was interesting how certain element took part in medicine and altering the bodies immune system or killing off Bacteria. Then there were certain elements that made pregnant women have babies with horrible deformations due to a single element that altered the whole growth and nutrient process in the embryo. All in all, I liked how this chapter gave me more information on how chemistry is very important in finding cures for diseases but also dangerous.  

Guideline Questions

1. Copper is important in "TheDisappearingg Spoon" because its career in public health and copper has proved the simplest, cheapest way to improve infrastructure. Like when certain bacteria, fungi, or algae inch across something made of copper, they absorb copper atoms, which disrupt their metabolism. Then Copper is important, according to my research because Copper is soft and able to transmit electricity and heat very effectively. It can't really be damaged by water and is widely used in construction. 

2. Electron spin is an electron found another electron with a different "spin", related to an electron's magnetic field. Gadolinium was effective in MRIs because having so many unpaired, noncanceling electrons allows Gadolinium to be magnetized more strongly than any other element. 

3. It seems that his condition is caused by inappropriate exposure to Silver or Silver Dust which causes the skin to be Blue-ish Grey and it sometimes affects the Eye. 

4. There was Prontosil that was on sale by IGF for curing plagues breaking out in America, but nobody knew how it Really worked and had some side effects in some cases. 

5. D-DOPA is similar to L-DOPA, but with opposite chirality. Levo- and dextro- rotation reference a molecule's ability to rotate planes of polarized light in either direction. 

6. Upon reading the paragraph, I think that it is really interesting that the element, Gold, can be a hope to cure cancer. Although the only flaw or my opinion, I saw in his experimentation is that a "hot dog" is dead tissue, not Live tissue which could cause alternative results to the experiment. Not to mention, as precious as Gold is in today's markets, it would cost too much for research and instead of looking Gold as a cure it would make people see more valuable for their own personal Greed instead of helping others. As a result, Gold will bring hope but also bring something bad along with it.

Chapter 9

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 9

Summary

     In this Chapter, it mentions the dangers of certain elements that play a biological role as well as a chemical role to our bodies. One of those elements is Cadmium, it can go into your body and weaken our bones to the point that they break easily. The most major problem that happened with Cadmium is in Japan when they threw all the Cadmium in the ground which led it to the water then into the streams of rice fields that contained zinc which let cadmium get into it. But as dangerous as it is, it also useful for coating batteries and computer parts. Then, there is Thallium which is mostly dangerous and commonly used by serial killers, and assassins to kill their victims.  

     The chapter also talked about David Hahn who was a teenager in Detroit who only wanted to help people but didn't have enough knowledge of chemistry to seriously do something. Although, he did do something but it was extremely risky and dangerous. But sadly David wasn't seen much of a hero but a fool to some and ended working cleaning boats in the navy.  

Reflection

     I enjoyed this chapter because it talked about the dangers of some elements and how it can affect us biologically. Then, there is Bismuth which can live up to be the last element to go extinct which really peaks my interests. I also liked how David Hahn was really resourceful from having nothing but a few household items to work with from a whole nuclear reactor in his backyard shed. That story of David makes me think what would happen if I had those resources and that much time. 

Guideline Questions

1. Cadmium is harmful because it is like a poison, it leeches onto a living organism by replacing Zinc, causing new strange diseases. For example, in Japan it caused people to have weakened bones and have an internal failure on Kidneys. But, Cadmium is helpful because it is too valuable as a coating for batteries and computer parts, to prevent corrosion. Furthermore, it has a long history of use in pigments, tanning agents, and solders. 

2. Thallium's mode of attack is different because it can mimic elements such as Ti+3 or K+ and wriggle into many different biochemical niches. In addition, unlike Cadmium that can only go bones and Kidneys, Thallium can roam like a molecular Mongol horde. In addition, Thallium starts unstitching key amino acid bonds inside proteins. 

3. Thallium is similar to the danger of radioactivity because it is odorless and colorless which can cause lung cancer and have your fall off. 

4. Bismuth is such a unique element because it can live up to be the last element to go extinct and it is really stable. 

5. Thallium can be found in Nature and Americium is found by bombarding plutonium with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.

Chapter 8

The Disappearing Spoon Chapter 8

Summary

    In chapter 8, it talked about the discoveries that occurred to find various new elements from different scientist around the world. Or create a new element such as Technetium which was man-made by a piece equipment called the atom smasher. Then there was the Segre and Pauling who were not friends but communicated in order to relate on scientific research. 

     Furthermore, the chapter mentions how women played a big part in discovering Fission. In addition to Pauling, he was seen as a brilliant chemist but lacked in some aspects which was his arrogance which caused him errors that humiliated him and his work. Watson and Crick were the two responsible for this matter and although having errors themselves by Pauling's papers, they proved to be more efficient in finding more accurate results that did not include errors. 

Reflection

    What I liked about the chapter is that it explains the creation of the atom smasher which uses other elements to create a new isotope. The only thing I disliked is when people saw Watson and Crick more famous than Pauling because he Pauling has done more work and by himself. Then there is the discovery of Fission that I thought was interesting to know that women discovered it.  

Guideline Questions

1. It was named technetium, Greek for “artificial.” And it was the first man-made element. 

2. one scientific discovery is in the early 1990s, Pfizer was testing out a drug called UK92480, intended to treat patients with angina, a common precursor to heart attacks, involving the constriction of blood vessels that supply the heart. The company was hoping the drug would relax the blood vessels. It failed in that regard, but test subjects reported some fascinating developments below the belt, and so became the little blue pill known as Viagra. The second scientific discovery is the microwave oven in 1945, when a Raytheon engineer named Percy Spencer was fiddling with energy sources for radar equipment. Then, he realized that the chocolate bar in his pants was melting.

3. Linus Pauling isn't as famous as Watson and Crick because he was ignorant, which caused him mistakes, and stubborn. As a result, he was publicly humiliated for his triple helixes and inverted phosphorus. 

4. One interesting fact is that Hennig Brand, a German, discovered phosphorus quite by accident in 1669 while processing urine in search of a compound that would turn ordinary metals into gold. Another interesting fact is that phosphorus or more specific, Red phosphorus is far more stable at room temperature — it's found on the side of any box of safety matches. The friction of the match against the red phosphorous transforms a little bit of the red phosphorus into white phosphorus, providing the ignition needed to light the match.